Phenotypes in insect biodiversity research

Phenotypes, here defined as the observable characteristics of organisms, including morphology, behavior, and physiological products (e.g., nests and galls)—the results of gene expression, in an environment—are the primary data for research on the evolution and taxonomy of insects (Deans et al., 2012a). The shapes, textures, colors, or simply the presence or absence of anatomical features or behaviors help us determine taxa and guide our hypotheses regarding their evolutionary history. Phenotype data are relevant to most other research on insects as well, including biomechanics (Labonte and Federle, 2015), bioinspired engineering (Werfel et al., 2014; Lau et al., 2014; Winegard et al., 2014), genotype-phenotype associations (Houle and Fierst, 2013), genetic modification (Wang and Jacobs-Lorena, 2013), human disease research using insect models (Washington et al., 2009), plant-insect interactions (Whitney and Federle, 2013), and many others. Despite their broad relevance, phenotype data generally lack the standards necessary for computation or even broad understanding by humans. That is, one cannot simply query across phenotype data (What are the most frequently described color phenotypes for Hymenoptera?) with the aid of computers, as one can do with molecular data (What are the most frequently sequenced protein-encoding genes for Hymenoptera?). Researchers increasingly recognize that lifting this barrier will result in more meaningful, integrative research across the life sciences (Deans et al., 2015), and computational mechanisms are increasingly implemented in biodiversity research.